Ultimately there was not reasonable suspicion on the totality. It was essentially a “well-tuned and correct” hunch. Many—but not all—of the remaining reasonable suspicion factors bear a close resemblance to those presented, but ultimately rejected, in United States v. Bowman, 884 F.3d 200 (4th Cir. 2018). United States v. Contreras, 2022 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 231158 (W.D. Va. Dec. 23, 2022). Suppressed. A checklist of factors used by the officer was put into evidence:
INDICATORS ☐ Abnormal Sweating ☐ Air Fresheners (Multiple) ☐ Anomalies (Explain) ☐ Anxiety ☐ Arm/Hand Gestures ☐ Attire (Inappropriate) ☐ Audible/Deep Sighs ☒ Avoidance ☐ Bite/Chew/Lick Lips ☒ Body Posture (Explain) ☐ Chain Smoking ☒ Conflicting Stories ☒ Cost Effective ☐ Currency ☐ Deliberate Speech ☐ Difficulty Swallowing ☐ Disassociate from Vehicle ☒ Disclaimers (FOP, Etc) ☒ Evasiveness ☒ Excessive Nervousness ☐ Eye Contact ☐ Facial Expressions ☐ Fake Smile/laughter ☒ Fast Food/Snacks Excessive ☒ Fatigued ☒ Feigned Memory Loss ☐ Hand Written Directions ☐ Heavy / Holding Breath ☐ Hesitation (Itinerary, Etc.) ☐ High Mileage ☐ Implausible Itinerary ☐ Single Key ☒ Luggage (Disproportionate) ☐ Map/GPS* ☒ Multiple Cell Phones ☐ New Paint ☒ Obvious Shaking ☒ Older Car Recently Registered ☒ Overtly Cooperative ☐ Owner Not Present ☐ Pulsating Artery ☒ Quick Turn Around in Travel ☐ Rental Vehicle ☐ Rigid/Frozen ☐ Skips Around Abruptly ☒ Source city/state ☐ Uses qualifiers ☐ Voice Inflection/Tone ☐ Weapons ☐ Yawns Continuously ☐ BLOC/CCH/EPIC/NADDI5 ☐ Other (Note in Narrative)
. . .
Trooper Miller is an accomplished police officer with 19 years of total law-enforcement experience, 15 years of drug interdiction assignments, and tens of thousands of vehicle stops. Contreras rightly concedes that this trooper’s hunch is well tuned. (Hr’g Tr. 70:10-13.) And Trooper Miller was inarguably correct; someone in that truck was trafficking a large quantity of cocaine. But without more, a hunch—however well-tuned and correct it may ultimately turn out to be—is not sufficient under the Fourth Amendment to prolong a vehicle stop to investigate criminal activity. Wardlow, 528 U.S. at 123 (quoting Terry, 392 U.S. at 27). Under binding Fourth Circuit precedent, which this court is obligated to apply, Trooper Miller did not have reasonable suspicion that drug trafficking was afoot when he abandoned his traffic stop for a narcotics investigation.
Doesn’t every vehicle built in the last decade have GPS?
by John Wesley Hall
Criminal Defense Lawyer and
Search and seizure law consultant
Little Rock, Arkansas
Contact: forhall @ aol.com / The Book www.johnwesleyhall.com
"If it was easy, everybody would be doing it. It isn't, and they don't." —Me
"Life is not a matter of holding good cards, but of playing a poor hand well." –Josh Billings (pseudonym of Henry Wheeler Shaw), Josh Billings on Ice, and Other Things (1868) (erroneously attributed to Robert Louis Stevenson, among others)
“I am still learning.” —Domenico Giuntalodi (but misattributed to Michelangelo Buonarroti (common phrase throughout 1500's)).
"Love work; hate mastery over others; and avoid intimacy with the government."
—Shemaya, in the Thalmud
"It is a pleasant world we live in, sir, a very pleasant world. There are bad people in it, Mr. Richard, but if there were no bad people, there would be no good lawyers."
—Charles Dickens, “The Old Curiosity Shop ... With a Frontispiece. From a Painting by Geo. Cattermole, Etc.” 255 (1848)
"A system of law that not only makes certain conduct criminal, but also lays down rules for the conduct of the authorities, often becomes complex in its application to individual cases, and will from time to time produce imperfect results, especially if one's attention is confined to the particular case at bar. Some criminals do go free because of the necessity of keeping government and its servants in their place. That is one of the costs of having and enforcing a Bill of Rights. This country is built on the assumption that the cost is worth paying, and that in the long run we are all both freer and safer if the Constitution is strictly enforced."
—Williams
v. Nix, 700 F. 2d 1164, 1173 (8th Cir. 1983) (Richard Sheppard Arnold,
J.), rev'd Nix v. Williams, 467 US. 431 (1984).
"The criminal goes free, if he must, but it is the law that sets him free. Nothing can destroy a government more quickly than its failure to observe its own laws,
or worse, its disregard of the charter of its own existence." —Mapp
v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 659 (1961).
"Any costs the exclusionary rule are costs imposed directly by the Fourth Amendment."
—Yale Kamisar, 86 Mich.L.Rev. 1, 36 n. 151 (1987).
"There have been powerful hydraulic pressures throughout our history that
bear heavily on the Court to water down constitutional guarantees and give the
police the upper hand. That hydraulic pressure has probably never been greater
than it is today."
— Terry
v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 39 (1968) (Douglas, J., dissenting).
"The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their
property."
—Entick
v. Carrington, 19 How.St.Tr. 1029, 1066, 95 Eng. Rep. 807 (C.P. 1765)
"It is a fair summary of history to say that the safeguards of liberty have
frequently been forged in controversies involving not very nice people. And
so, while we are concerned here with a shabby defrauder, we must deal with his
case in the context of what are really the great themes expressed by the Fourth
Amendment."
—United
States v. Rabinowitz, 339 U.S. 56, 69 (1950) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting)
"The course of true law pertaining to searches and seizures, as enunciated
here, has not–to put it mildly–run smooth."
—Chapman
v. United States, 365 U.S. 610, 618 (1961) (Frankfurter, J., concurring).
"A search is a search, even if it happens to disclose nothing but the
bottom of a turntable."
—Arizona
v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321, 325 (1987)
"For the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places. What a person knowingly
exposes to the public, even in his own home or office, is not a subject of Fourth
Amendment protection. ... But what he seeks to preserve as private, even in
an area accessible to the public, may be constitutionally protected."
—Katz
v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967)
“Experience should teach us to be most on guard to
protect liberty when the Government’s purposes are beneficent. Men born
to freedom are naturally alert to repel invasion of their liberty by evil-minded
rulers. The greatest dangers to liberty lurk in insidious encroachment by men
of zeal, well-meaning but without understanding.”
—United
States v. Olmstead, 277 U.S. 438, 479 (1925) (Brandeis, J., dissenting)
“Liberty—the freedom from unwarranted
intrusion by government—is as easily lost through insistent nibbles by
government officials who seek to do their jobs too well as by those whose purpose
it is to oppress; the piranha can be as deadly as the shark.”
—United
States v. $124,570, 873 F.2d 1240, 1246 (9th Cir. 1989)
"You can't always get what you want /
But if you try sometimes / You just might find / You get what you need."
—Mick Jagger & Keith Richards
"In Germany, they first came for the communists,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a communist. Then they came for the Jews,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a Jew. Then they came for the trade unionists,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a trade unionist. Then they came for
the Catholics and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a Catholic. Then they came
for me–and by that time there was nobody left to speak up."
—Martin Niemöller (1945) [he served seven years in a concentration
camp]
“You know, most men would get discouraged by
now. Fortunately for you, I am not most men!”
---Pepé Le Pew
"The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers,
is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which
reasonable men draw from evidence. Its protection consists in requiring that
those inferences be drawn by a neutral and detached magistrate instead of being
judged by the officer engaged in the often competitive enterprise of ferreting
out crime."
—Johnson
v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 13-14 (1948)
