Based on an informant’s story, the police were looking for Barefield in a particular car. They happened upon defendant Patrick at the appointed time and place near the informant in a car matching the description. A reasonable but mistaken belief that defendant and his car were the ones described by the informant here added up to even probable cause for the stop. United States v. Patrick, 2015 U.S. App. LEXIS 1003 (8th Cir. January 23, 2015):
In United States v. Bobo, 994 F.2d 524 (8th Cir. 1993), we confronted a similar situation. Police were searching for a Mr. Bobo with the alias “Hanky,” who was suspected of homicide. Id. at 525. Having narrowed their search to Richard Bobo and Marvin Bobo (brothers), police suspected Marvin. See id. at 525-26. With a “pickup order” for Marvin, one officer began searching for a large green Cadillac in “beat-up condition,” which eyewitness testimony tied to Marvin. Id. at 526. While on patrol, the officer happened upon “a green Cadillac in poor condition” driven by a man whom he “thought … closely resembled the mug shot of Marvin.” Id. Officers pulled over the Cadillac (after a brief chase), noticing the driver “duck[] to his right and … reach under the driver’s seat.” Id. Officers arrested the man and found a firearm under his seat, but they soon realized the driver was Marvin’s brother Richard, who also happened to be a felon. See id. Although Richard argued the arrest based on the mistaken identity was unlawful, we “note[d] that if the police had probable cause to arrest Marvin, and they reasonably believed that the man driving the green Cadillac was Marvin, then Richard’s arrest was a valid arrest.” Id. at 527. Because (1) the officers had good reason to suspect Marvin, (2) Richard resembled Marvin, and (3) Richard was driving a car tied to Marvin, we concluded police had probable cause to arrest Richard. See id.
As with the Bobo brothers, the officers here had probable cause to suspect Barefield of a crime, and they reasonably believed the man driving the gold-brown Buick was Barefield. One of Agent Oliver’s known informants mistakenly had identified the driver as Barefield. Although we do not know the informant’s past reliability, he was known to Agent Oliver and was “enlisted … to be a confidential informant, and therefore, could be held accountable … for false information.” United States v. Kent, 531 F.3d 642, 649 (8th Cir. 2008). The informant’s willingness to arrange a meeting and his accurate prediction of events also provided strong support to the veracity of the informant’s information. See United States v. Winarske, 715 F.3d 1063, 1067 (8th Cir. 2013) (“An informant may … prove himself to be a reliable source for law enforcement by providing predictive information about a meeting time or place.”); United States v. Manes, 603 F.3d 451, 456 (8th Cir. 2010) (reasoning the reliability of an informant’s information “is bolstered if the tip is corroborated not only by matching an identity or description, but also by accurately describing a suspect’s future behavior”). In this case, the time and location of the meeting place, the color of the car, the dent in its passenger-side door, and even the car’s make3 all point to the informant’s accuracy and truthfulness with regard to the driver’s identity.
Even disregarding the mistaken identity, the informant told the officers that whoever the driver was, he would have drugs on him. This information, combined with the informant’s corroborated credibility, also justified a reasonable belief the driver had committed a crime.
At the time Officer Gann made the stop, reasonable suspicion and even probable cause existed to believe the driver had committed a crime. This is more than enough to justify a stop. See Alabama v. White, 496 U.S. 325, 330 (1990) (“Reasonable suspicion is a less demanding standard than probable cause.”).
by John Wesley Hall
Criminal Defense Lawyer and
Search and seizure law consultant
Little Rock, Arkansas
Contact: forhall @ aol.com / The Book www.johnwesleyhall.com
"If it was easy, everybody would be doing it. It isn't, and they don't." —Me
"Life is not a matter of holding good cards, but of playing a poor hand well." –Josh Billings (pseudonym of Henry Wheeler Shaw), Josh Billings on Ice, and Other Things (1868) (erroneously attributed to Robert Louis Stevenson, among others)
“I am still learning.” —Domenico Giuntalodi (but misattributed to Michelangelo Buonarroti (common phrase throughout 1500's)).
"Love work; hate mastery over others; and avoid intimacy with the government."
—Shemaya, in the Thalmud
"It is a pleasant world we live in, sir, a very pleasant world. There are bad people in it, Mr. Richard, but if there were no bad people, there would be no good lawyers."
—Charles Dickens, “The Old Curiosity Shop ... With a Frontispiece. From a Painting by Geo. Cattermole, Etc.” 255 (1848)
"A system of law that not only makes certain conduct criminal, but also lays down rules for the conduct of the authorities, often becomes complex in its application to individual cases, and will from time to time produce imperfect results, especially if one's attention is confined to the particular case at bar. Some criminals do go free because of the necessity of keeping government and its servants in their place. That is one of the costs of having and enforcing a Bill of Rights. This country is built on the assumption that the cost is worth paying, and that in the long run we are all both freer and safer if the Constitution is strictly enforced."
—Williams
v. Nix, 700 F. 2d 1164, 1173 (8th Cir. 1983) (Richard Sheppard Arnold,
J.), rev'd Nix v. Williams, 467 US. 431 (1984).
"The criminal goes free, if he must, but it is the law that sets him free. Nothing can destroy a government more quickly than its failure to observe its own laws,
or worse, its disregard of the charter of its own existence." —Mapp
v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 659 (1961).
"Any costs the exclusionary rule are costs imposed directly by the Fourth Amendment."
—Yale Kamisar, 86 Mich.L.Rev. 1, 36 n. 151 (1987).
"There have been powerful hydraulic pressures throughout our history that
bear heavily on the Court to water down constitutional guarantees and give the
police the upper hand. That hydraulic pressure has probably never been greater
than it is today."
— Terry
v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 39 (1968) (Douglas, J., dissenting).
"The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their
property."
—Entick
v. Carrington, 19 How.St.Tr. 1029, 1066, 95 Eng. Rep. 807 (C.P. 1765)
"It is a fair summary of history to say that the safeguards of liberty have
frequently been forged in controversies involving not very nice people. And
so, while we are concerned here with a shabby defrauder, we must deal with his
case in the context of what are really the great themes expressed by the Fourth
Amendment."
—United
States v. Rabinowitz, 339 U.S. 56, 69 (1950) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting)
"The course of true law pertaining to searches and seizures, as enunciated
here, has not–to put it mildly–run smooth."
—Chapman
v. United States, 365 U.S. 610, 618 (1961) (Frankfurter, J., concurring).
"A search is a search, even if it happens to disclose nothing but the
bottom of a turntable."
—Arizona
v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321, 325 (1987)
"For the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places. What a person knowingly
exposes to the public, even in his own home or office, is not a subject of Fourth
Amendment protection. ... But what he seeks to preserve as private, even in
an area accessible to the public, may be constitutionally protected."
—Katz
v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967)
“Experience should teach us to be most on guard to
protect liberty when the Government’s purposes are beneficent. Men born
to freedom are naturally alert to repel invasion of their liberty by evil-minded
rulers. The greatest dangers to liberty lurk in insidious encroachment by men
of zeal, well-meaning but without understanding.”
—United
States v. Olmstead, 277 U.S. 438, 479 (1925) (Brandeis, J., dissenting)
“Liberty—the freedom from unwarranted
intrusion by government—is as easily lost through insistent nibbles by
government officials who seek to do their jobs too well as by those whose purpose
it is to oppress; the piranha can be as deadly as the shark.”
—United
States v. $124,570, 873 F.2d 1240, 1246 (9th Cir. 1989)
"You can't always get what you want /
But if you try sometimes / You just might find / You get what you need."
—Mick Jagger & Keith Richards
"In Germany, they first came for the communists,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a communist. Then they came for the Jews,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a Jew. Then they came for the trade unionists,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a trade unionist. Then they came for
the Catholics and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a Catholic. Then they came
for me–and by that time there was nobody left to speak up."
—Martin Niemöller (1945) [he served seven years in a concentration
camp]
“You know, most men would get discouraged by
now. Fortunately for you, I am not most men!”
---Pepé Le Pew
"The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers,
is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which
reasonable men draw from evidence. Its protection consists in requiring that
those inferences be drawn by a neutral and detached magistrate instead of being
judged by the officer engaged in the often competitive enterprise of ferreting
out crime."
—Johnson
v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 13-14 (1948)